Picture of Plato's portrait.
Roman copy of an original work of 360 BC.
Marble. Height 0.18 m. From Athens.
National Archaeological Museum Γ 3735
Ι. Introduction
- Human rights in the political culture of ancient Greece
- The Athenian democracy: the first democratic society
ΙΙ. Principles of the Athenian Democracy
- Independent justice
- Social justice
- Equal rights – equal opportunities
- Participation in decisions
- Participation in the administration
- Information for everyone
- Transparency and accountability
- Active citizens
ΙΙI. The Achievements
Philosophy, Science, Education,
Theater, Sculpture, Painting, Architecture
IV. Epilogue: The Legacy
Ι.
Introduction
Human rights in the political culture of ancient Greece
Humans as autonomous entities in the context of organized society, the respect for their personality, freedoms and rights, were fundamental topics in the ancient Greek thought. From the Elegies of Solon (c. 630-560 BC) to the Democracy and Laws of Plato (428/7-348/7), the Politics of Aristotle (384-323/2 BC) and Demosthenes’ fiery speeches (384-323 / 2 BC), the ideas of justice, rule of law, decency, education, virtue and free thought stand out as key ingredients for the ideal regime.
Eunomia – Education – Freedom
Aristotle's double-sided portrait.
Roman copy of an original work around 325-300 BC.
Marble. Height 0.42 m. From Athens.
National Archaeological Museum Γ 3772
Roman copy of an original work around 325-300 BC.
Marble. Height 0.42 m. From Athens.
National Archaeological Museum Γ 3772
Eunomia – Education – Freedom
Portrait of Demosthenes.
Roman copy of an original work of the 3rd c. BC.
Marble. Height 0.28 m. From Athens.
National Archaeological Museum Γ 327
Roman copy of an original work of the 3rd c. BC.
Marble. Height 0.28 m. From Athens.
National Archaeological Museum Γ 327
The Athenian Democracy
The first democratic society
Regimes of democratic principles developed from time to time in various cities in Greece but did not evolve. In Athens, on the contrary, democracy flourished in a unique way and established itself in the Greek world as the longest running example of city organization with institutional enhancement of the citizen, his obligations and rights, his freedoms and especially his value as individual and his ability to reason, express himself independently and live in harmony.
To the best dancer
Oinochoe.
Late Geometric period - 740-730 BC.
Clay. Height 0.23 m. From the cemetery of Dipylon in Athens.
National Archaeological Museum A 192
An inscription on the body of the vase states that the vase will be given as a prize to whoever of the dancers will dance most graciously. The inscription is engraved in the oldest form of the alphabetic script, the Greek alphabet, ancestor of the Latin and European alphabet.
Late Geometric period - 740-730 BC.
Clay. Height 0.23 m. From the cemetery of Dipylon in Athens.
National Archaeological Museum A 192
An inscription on the body of the vase states that the vase will be given as a prize to whoever of the dancers will dance most graciously. The inscription is engraved in the oldest form of the alphabetic script, the Greek alphabet, ancestor of the Latin and European alphabet.
Theseus, the first hero of democracy
Red figure calyx krater
480 BC.
Clay. Height 0.405 m. From the Acropolis of Athens.
National Archaeological Museum A 15115
Theseus fights with the Minotaur in the labyrinth. Ariadne gets ready to crown him while Minos attends the scene. The Athenians connected the mythical hero with the regime of their city. Theseus, a hero with strength and popularity, chose to step down from power and hand over the administration of Athens to his fellow citizens.
480 BC.
Clay. Height 0.405 m. From the Acropolis of Athens.
National Archaeological Museum A 15115
Theseus fights with the Minotaur in the labyrinth. Ariadne gets ready to crown him while Minos attends the scene. The Athenians connected the mythical hero with the regime of their city. Theseus, a hero with strength and popularity, chose to step down from power and hand over the administration of Athens to his fellow citizens.
ΙI.
Principles of the Athenian Democracy
Independent justice
At the level of fundamental principles, the first steps of the Athenian state were influenced by the idea of justice, which played a catalytic role in the decisions relating to appeasing class conflicts, determining political affairs, and shaping institutions. Thus, at the end of the 7th c. BC, in the years of archon Aristaichmos (621/620 BC), the Athenian lawgiver Dracon put an end to the arbitrary disposition of the nobles in the attribution of justice by drawing up a code of criminal laws for various offenses such as homicide and theft.
Justice for all
Part of stele.
409/8 BC.
Marble. Height 1.03 m. From Athens.
Epigraphic Museum 6602
Approved by the boule and the deme, the law of Dracon about murder is republished, and the decision is taken to engrave it on a stone stele and set it up in front of the Basileius Portico in the Agora. The law differentiates between unintentional manslaughter and intentional murder while it specifies the judges and penalties.
409/8 BC.
Marble. Height 1.03 m. From Athens.
Epigraphic Museum 6602
Approved by the boule and the deme, the law of Dracon about murder is republished, and the decision is taken to engrave it on a stone stele and set it up in front of the Basileius Portico in the Agora. The law differentiates between unintentional manslaughter and intentional murder while it specifies the judges and penalties.
Justice as a divine good
Statue of Themis
Around 300 BC.
Marble. Height 2.22 m. From Ramnous, Attica.
National Archaeological Museum Γ 231
The revered goddess of justice is represented here. According to Greek mythology, Themis was the daughter of Ouranos and Gaia. She had six daughters with Zeus: the Moirai / Fates (Lachesis, Klotho and Atropos) and the Horai/ Hours (Diki, Eunomia and Irini).
Around 300 BC.
Marble. Height 2.22 m. From Ramnous, Attica.
National Archaeological Museum Γ 231
The revered goddess of justice is represented here. According to Greek mythology, Themis was the daughter of Ouranos and Gaia. She had six daughters with Zeus: the Moirai / Fates (Lachesis, Klotho and Atropos) and the Horai/ Hours (Diki, Eunomia and Irini).
Social justice
At the beginning of the 6th c. BC, Solon advocated the rule of law, the good governance of the city, which smooths out the contradictions of social injustice caused by lawlessness. The granting of political rights to the Thetai, the economically weaker social class of Athens, and seisachtheia (the shaking off of burdens) by abolishing debt slavery, were key acts of the Solonian policy and paved the way for the democratic reforms of Cleisthenes (late 6th c. BC).
First the human being
Kouros statue
Around 600 BC.
Marble. Height 3.05 m. From the sanctuary of Poseidon at Sounion
National Archaeological Museum Γ 2720
The naked male figure standing freely in space was painted over, conveying the impression of liveliness.
God, or mortal, he will continue to occupy us with various hypotheses, such as that which identifies him with Phrontis, the worthy helmsman of Menelaus, who according to Homer (Odyssey c 278) was buried at Sounion.
Around 600 BC.
Marble. Height 3.05 m. From the sanctuary of Poseidon at Sounion
National Archaeological Museum Γ 2720
The naked male figure standing freely in space was painted over, conveying the impression of liveliness.
God, or mortal, he will continue to occupy us with various hypotheses, such as that which identifies him with Phrontis, the worthy helmsman of Menelaus, who according to Homer (Odyssey c 278) was buried at Sounion.
The awakening of self-awareness
Kore statue
Around 550-540 BC.
Marble. Kore height (with plinth) 1.76 - (with pedestal) 2.02m. From the ancient deme of Myrrhinous, Attica.
National Archaeological Museum Γ 4889
Next to the naked kouroi of the archaic sculpture appear the korai, dressed in colorful garments and adorned with elaborate jewels. Characteristic is the example of the statue of Phrasikleia. The young girl, who departed this life early, stands still, a smile on her face. "I will be called a kore (maiden) forever, since the gods gave me this name instead of marriage," is what we read in the epigram engraved on the front side of the statue’s base.
Around 550-540 BC.
Marble. Kore height (with plinth) 1.76 - (with pedestal) 2.02m. From the ancient deme of Myrrhinous, Attica.
National Archaeological Museum Γ 4889
Next to the naked kouroi of the archaic sculpture appear the korai, dressed in colorful garments and adorned with elaborate jewels. Characteristic is the example of the statue of Phrasikleia. The young girl, who departed this life early, stands still, a smile on her face. "I will be called a kore (maiden) forever, since the gods gave me this name instead of marriage," is what we read in the epigram engraved on the front side of the statue’s base.
The awakening of self-awareness
Engraved base
Around 550-540 BC.
The epigram which is engraved on the front side of the statue’s base.
Around 550-540 BC.
The epigram which is engraved on the front side of the statue’s base.
Let the artist speak
Engraved base
Around 550-540 BC.
On the right side of the base, there is an engraved inscription that gives us information about the name and origin of the famous artist: Aristion of Paros made me.
Around 550-540 BC.
On the right side of the base, there is an engraved inscription that gives us information about the name and origin of the famous artist: Aristion of Paros made me.
Equal rights – equal opportunities
The established Athenian Democracy of classical times (462-322 BC) governed and expressed itself through three main principles: equality, equity and parity. The citizens of Athens knew that they were equal before the law, equal in terms of the right to speak, equal in terms of the honors bestowed upon them by the state.
A wreath as a prize
Votive relief
Around 460 BC.
Marble. Height 0.61 m. width 0.495 m. From the sanctuary of Athena at Sounion.
National Archaeological Museum Γ 3344
The young man, winner in athletic games, places the metal wreath on his head or prepares to dedicate it to the goddess Athena
as a token of gratitude for his victory.
Around 460 BC.
Marble. Height 0.61 m. width 0.495 m. From the sanctuary of Athena at Sounion.
National Archaeological Museum Γ 3344
The young man, winner in athletic games, places the metal wreath on his head or prepares to dedicate it to the goddess Athena
as a token of gratitude for his victory.
Equality before the Law
Judicial panel
4th c. BC.
Bronze. Length 0.115 m. width. 0.021 m. From Trachones of Attica.
National Archaeological Museum X 17284
The panel bears an engraved inscription with the name, patronymic and demotic name of the candidate juror who was selected by lot before the beginning of the trial (so that it was not possible to be bribed).
4th c. BC.
Bronze. Length 0.115 m. width. 0.021 m. From Trachones of Attica.
National Archaeological Museum X 17284
The panel bears an engraved inscription with the name, patronymic and demotic name of the candidate juror who was selected by lot before the beginning of the trial (so that it was not possible to be bribed).
Equality before the Law
Judicial vote
4th c. BC.
Bronze. Diam. 0.065 m. From the west slope of the Acropolis.
National Archaeological Museum X12220.
The disk bears an engraved inscription: VOTE: PUBLIC. It has a perforated central axis and was used as a condemnation vote. Similar votes with solid central axis served as acquittals. The juror held the axis between the fingers to ensure the secrecy of the ballot. Votes were collected in a special ballot box before the counting.
4th c. BC.
Bronze. Diam. 0.065 m. From the west slope of the Acropolis.
National Archaeological Museum X12220.
The disk bears an engraved inscription: VOTE: PUBLIC. It has a perforated central axis and was used as a condemnation vote. Similar votes with solid central axis served as acquittals. The juror held the axis between the fingers to ensure the secrecy of the ballot. Votes were collected in a special ballot box before the counting.
Participation in decisions
The assembly of the deme was dominant in all matters of public life, that is the assembly of citizens, in which all Athenian men over the age of 20, who had fulfilled their military service (as teenagers), were eligible to participate. The assembly of the deme had the right to issue decrees on matters of religion, economy, city organization, domestic and foreign policy, which were ratified by vote. Every citizen had the right to speak at the meetings.
The place – symbol
The hill of Pnyx was located west of the Acropolis. It was in this area that during the 5th and 4th c. BC the assembly of the Deme held its meetings. From the end of the 4th c. BC onwards the meetings were taking place in the Theater of Dionysos.
Defending Athens
Grave stele of hoplite Aristion
520-510 BC.
Marble. Height 2.40 m. From Velanideza, Attica
National Archaeological Museum Γ 29
Aristion is depicted in full armor.
The citizens-hoplites defended Athens, an ideal that was perceived both as a duty and privilege of the Athenian democracy. At the base of the stele the name of the sculptor is written (work of Aristocles).
520-510 BC.
Marble. Height 2.40 m. From Velanideza, Attica
National Archaeological Museum Γ 29
Aristion is depicted in full armor.
The citizens-hoplites defended Athens, an ideal that was perceived both as a duty and privilege of the Athenian democracy. At the base of the stele the name of the sculptor is written (work of Aristocles).
Participation in the administration
The representative body of the assembly of the deme was the boule (council) of the “five hundred”, which consisted of 500 Athenian citizens (fifty from each of the ten tribes) serving an annual term. The task of the council of the five hundred was to prepare the decrees, supervise the execution of the decisions taken by the assembly of the deme, inspect the implementation of the law, assess the city magistrates, manage public finances, and handle the external affairs. Over the sessions that were held daily in the bouleuterion, in the south part of the Agora, presided the prytaneis, namely 50 executive councilors from each tribe who were undertaking in rotation (for 1/10 of the year) the administration of the state.
Here democracy was born
The Agora of Athens
The main administrative bodies of democracy were housed here.
A place for citizens to gather, a place for political dialogue and discussions
The main administrative bodies of democracy were housed here.
A place for citizens to gather, a place for political dialogue and discussions
Voting of the parliament
Altar.
194/93 BC.
Marble. Height 1,175 m. - width 1.63 m. depth 1.53 m. Found in the Athens Agora.
National Archaeological Museum Γ 1495
The altar bears an inscription that attests that it was
a votive offering of the Athenian boule to the goddess Aphrodite.
194/93 BC.
Marble. Height 1,175 m. - width 1.63 m. depth 1.53 m. Found in the Athens Agora.
National Archaeological Museum Γ 1495
The altar bears an inscription that attests that it was
a votive offering of the Athenian boule to the goddess Aphrodite.
Information for everyone
Stelae with laws, financial decrees, alliance treaties, honorary decrees and other written texts of the Athenian state, were set up in sacred and public places, in visible and prominent spots in such a way that were easily accessible to citizens, who had to be kept uninterruptedly informed. All of the original decree texts were recorded in a special building in the Agora, the so-called Metroon (Registry).
Transparency and accountability
In addition to the boule (council) and the assemble of the deme, the Athenian State had a large number of individual and collective authorities, in which all Athenian citizens had the right to participate. Important for the representation of all social classes in the numerous offices of the Athenian state, was the manner of selecting the magistrates by lot that was generalized in the 4th c. BC. However, all magistrates were supervised during their term of office, at the end of their tenure were accountable to the deme and could be deposed or even exiled.
Without discrimination
Allotment machine
Temple-shaped votive stele
162/1 BC.
Marble. Height 0.47 m. From Athens. Gymnasium of Hadrian.
Epigraphic Museum 8984.
The selection of the city officials and the determination of the order of the tribes were carried out in public with the aid of special machines, which bore slots for the insertion of the names of the candidates.
The allotment machines were also provided with a vertical metal tube that ended in a funnel into which special lot spheres were placed.
Temple-shaped votive stele
162/1 BC.
Marble. Height 0.47 m. From Athens. Gymnasium of Hadrian.
Epigraphic Museum 8984.
The selection of the city officials and the determination of the order of the tribes were carried out in public with the aid of special machines, which bore slots for the insertion of the names of the candidates.
The allotment machines were also provided with a vertical metal tube that ended in a funnel into which special lot spheres were placed.
Without discrimination
Ostracism sherd
Around 470 BC.
Clay. Length 0.09 m. Athens.
National Archaeological Museum A 11712
It comes from the rim of a large, open vase. It bears engraved on it the name of Themistocles Phrearrhios, general and leader of the democratic party, who was exiled in 471/0 BC.
Around 470 BC.
Clay. Length 0.09 m. Athens.
National Archaeological Museum A 11712
It comes from the rim of a large, open vase. It bears engraved on it the name of Themistocles Phrearrhios, general and leader of the democratic party, who was exiled in 471/0 BC.
Active citizens
The Athenian state honored active citizens for acts of social solidarity, offer of financial support to public works and flawless execution of their duties, so that they stood out as role models. Foreign citizens had the opportunity, depending on their contribution to the City and their commitment to democratic values, to gain legal protection, the right to own land and residence, and the right to hold the Athenian citizenship.
Legal protection for foreign citizens
Stele.
440-427 BC. Marble. Height 0.62 m. From the Acropolis of Athens. Epigraphic Museum 6808
Honorary decrees for Leonides of Halicarnassus. He and his sons are granted protection from any injustice against them, as it would be the case with any Athenian citizen.
It is decided the decrees to be written on two stelae and set up on the Acropolis of Athens and in the sanctuary of Apollo in Halicarnassus.
440-427 BC. Marble. Height 0.62 m. From the Acropolis of Athens. Epigraphic Museum 6808
Honorary decrees for Leonides of Halicarnassus. He and his sons are granted protection from any injustice against them, as it would be the case with any Athenian citizen.
It is decided the decrees to be written on two stelae and set up on the Acropolis of Athens and in the sanctuary of Apollo in Halicarnassus.
Granting political rights to foreigners
Stele.
410/09 BC.
Marble. Height 1,12 m. From the Acropolis of Athens.
Epigraphic Museum 6601
Decree regarding the granting of citizenship to Thrasyboulos of Kalydon, who assassinated the oligarchic Phrynichus, contributing to the overthrow of the four-month regime of the Four Hundred and the restoration of democracy.
Another seven people, possibly accomplices, are also honored with land and residence rights in Athens and with protection.
410/09 BC.
Marble. Height 1,12 m. From the Acropolis of Athens.
Epigraphic Museum 6601
Decree regarding the granting of citizenship to Thrasyboulos of Kalydon, who assassinated the oligarchic Phrynichus, contributing to the overthrow of the four-month regime of the Four Hundred and the restoration of democracy.
Another seven people, possibly accomplices, are also honored with land and residence rights in Athens and with protection.
ΙΙI.
The Achievements
Athenian democracy
Freedom of speech and expression
The favorable environment of the Athenian democracy allowed the free circulation of ideas and independent thinking in all domains. The ideal interaction between city and citizen led to the flourishing of philosophy, science, rhetoric, education and art and turned Athens into a unique center of culture during the 5th and 4th centuries BC.
Attic Philosophy
The founder of Attic Philosophy was Socrates (469-399 BC). An Athenian citizen, who advocated the dialogue and critical thinking. By the example of his own life, he directed attention to the human being, to the value and substance of human existence. Among his top students was Plato.
Sciences
Athens was the place that Aristotle of Stageira chose to live in from the age of 17. A metic himself (that is, without full Athenian citizenship), he was a student of Plato the Athenian and a member of the Platonic Academy and later he founded his own philosophical school, the so-called Peripatetic school, in the Lyceum of Athens. In the free environment of Athens, he taught and wrote on issues of ethics, logic, politics, rhetoric, law, music, art, theater, psychology, physics, biology and zoology. The work of the leading multidisciplinary scientist is described by Diogenes Laertius (V28) in 445.270 lines.
Sciences
Grave stele of Phanostrate
4th c. BC.
Marble. Height 0, 56 m. width 0.39 m. Menidi (Acharnai), Attica
National Archaeological Museum Γ 993
A midwife and a doctor are depicted.
4th c. BC.
Marble. Height 0, 56 m. width 0.39 m. Menidi (Acharnai), Attica
National Archaeological Museum Γ 993
A midwife and a doctor are depicted.
Theater
In 461 BC, Pericles introduced the institution of free theater tickets for the financially weak citizens, enabling all Athenians to attend the competitions in drama and cultivate their mind and taste for beauty. The great playwrights, Aeschylus (525-456 BC), Sophocles (496-406 BC), Euripides (480-406 BC) and Aristophanes (445-385 BC) performed their works in the Theater of Dionysos in Athens.
Education
The ideology of the Athenian democracy was generally expressed in the humanitarian nature of education. Body and spirit were the two poles that composed the personality of the Athenian citizen.
Sculpture – Painting
The classical ideal of moderation, morality and inner balance that goes hand in hand with eunomia (rule of law), isonomy (equality before law) and isopolity (equality of rights) was expressed in various ways in the sculpture and painting of the era.
Grave stele of Hegeso
Late 5th c. BC.
Marble. Height 1.58 m. Kerameikos, Athens.
National Archaeological Museum Γ 3624.
The Athenian Hegeso, daughter of Proxenos, is represented seated on a chair. On the left, a maidservant presents her an open jewelry box. In her raised right hand, Hegeso held a piece of jewelry that was rendered in color.
Late 5th c. BC.
Marble. Height 1.58 m. Kerameikos, Athens.
National Archaeological Museum Γ 3624.
The Athenian Hegeso, daughter of Proxenos, is represented seated on a chair. On the left, a maidservant presents her an open jewelry box. In her raised right hand, Hegeso held a piece of jewelry that was rendered in color.
Detail from the frieze of the Parthenon
The Parthenon frieze, a pioneering work of art, is a supreme symbol of democratic ideology. The beautiful and idealized figures that are depicted motioning and acting in front of the eternal gods of Olympus, do not represent heroes of mythology but modern men and women who actively participate in the most important religious celebration of the city, the Panathenaea procession. Athenians, men and women of all ages, mortal and finite, stand next to the eternal immortals and do not hesitate to visually equate themselves with them in a unique manner that conforms to their democratic worldview.
The Parthenon frieze, a pioneering work of art, is a supreme symbol of democratic ideology. The beautiful and idealized figures that are depicted motioning and acting in front of the eternal gods of Olympus, do not represent heroes of mythology but modern men and women who actively participate in the most important religious celebration of the city, the Panathenaea procession. Athenians, men and women of all ages, mortal and finite, stand next to the eternal immortals and do not hesitate to visually equate themselves with them in a unique manner that conforms to their democratic worldview.
Architecture
The symmetric, the beautiful, the complete and the self-sufficient that single out the Greek art of classical times, characterize architecture as well. “Become lovers of your city” is what Pericles urged his fellow citizens. With the construction of magnificent buildings such as the Parthenon, the Propylaea, the Erechtheion and the Temple of Athena Nike, the ingenious politician managed to realize his vision for this unique city, the city – school of the Greek world, as the cradle of democracy was acquiring an image appropriate for a large economic, political and cultural center.
IV.
Epilogue
The Legacy
“Forgotten” for many centuries, the values of the Athenian democracy were rediscovered by the Europeans of the Renaissance in the manuscripts of ancient Greek literature and rekindled the interest in classical antiquity, inspiring artistic currents and generating progressive ideas and movements such as Humanism and Enlightenment.
Nowadays, the intellectual achievements and attainments of the Athenian democracy are revived in the western art, theater, philosophy, political thought and modern state organization. The word “democracy”, which was implanted intact in the languages of the western culture, along with countless other words and concepts of the democratic value system, continues to be a dynamic element and a source of inspiration for contemporary collective pursuits.
Contributors
SCIENTIFIC SUPERVISION – PLANNING – TEXTS
Dr Maria Lagogianni – Georgakarakos
Archaeologist, Director of the National Archaeological Museum
TEXT TRANSLATION
Dr Elisabeth Bargue, Art Historian – Museologist, Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports
TRANSLATION EDITING
Dr Katia Manteli, Archaeologist, National Archaeological Museum
Dr Evridiki Leka, Archaeologist, National Archaeological Museum
ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT
Kalliopi Sryrou, National Archaeological Museum
Gulielmos Nikolaidis, National Archaeological Museum
MANAGERIAL AND ACCOUNTING SUPPORT
DIRECTORATE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND EUROPEAN UNION OF THE HELLENIC MINISTRY OF CULTURE AND SPORTS
Giorgos Kalamantis
Head of the Directorate of International Relations and European Union of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports
Marianthi Anastasiadou
Head of the Department of International Relations of the Directorate of International Relations and European Union of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports
Christina Karanasou
Executive of the Directorate of International Relations and European Union of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports
PHOTOS
- National Archaeological Museum Photographic Archive
Photographers: Eleftherios A. Galanopoulos, Socrates Mavrommatis, Irini Miari, Kostas Xenikakis, Giannis Patrikianos, Spilios Pistas
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Photographer: Stelios Skourlis
- Epigraphic Museum Photographic Archive
Photographer: Socrates Mavrommatis
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Photographer: Socrates Mavrommatis
- Tasos Fytros
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Athina Iakovidou, Art Director
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